The Palace of the Grand Masters is the main fortification and architectural structure of the Old Town of Rhodes, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1988) and the most visited museum on the island. The building is located in the northwestern part of the medieval city, on top of a hill, dominating the port and surrounding quarters.
Today, about 24 of the palace’s halls are open to the public. The exhibition includes archaeological finds from the ancient and medieval periods, a collection of Hellenistic mosaics (4th–2nd centuries BC) brought from the island of Kos, as well as restored state rooms with furniture and interior items from the 16th–17th centuries.
History of the Palace of the Grand Masters
The site where the monumental Palace of the Grand Masters stands today has a sacred history dating back to ancient times. Archaeological evidence indicates that a temple of Helios – the sun god who was the supreme patron of the island of Rhodes – once stood here. In the 7th century AD, the Byzantines built a fortress on this foundation, whose powerful walls were meant to defend the island from numerous enemies. These Byzantine fortifications became the foundation – literally and figuratively – for the future knights` stronghold.
The Knights` Period (1309–1522) of the Palace of the Grand Masters
The true history of grandeur began in 1309. The Order of the Hospitallers of St. John, expelled from the Holy Land after the fall of Jerusalem in 1291, established itself on Cyprus and then turned its gaze to Rhodes. According to one version, the knights captured the island after a three-year siege; according to another, they bought it from the Genoese, who were tired of defending these lands from pirates. Thus began the "Knights` Period" in the history of Rhodes, lasting over two centuries.
It was here, on Rhodes, that the monastic brotherhood, originally founded to help pilgrims, finally transformed into an elite military force. The Hospitallers, wearing black cloaks with a white eight-pointed cross, became the most formidable Christian order in the Mediterranean.
The palace was built in the 14th century, presumably during the rule of Grand Master Hélion de Villeneuve (1319–1346). However, some sources point to a later date – around 1408. Behind this discrepancy lies an important detail: the construction and fortification of the palace and the city walls was a continuous process that lasted all 213 years of the knights` presence on the island.
The Palace of the Grand Masters was conceived not merely as the residence of the head of the Order. It served three key functions:
• Administrative center – from here, the island and all the Hospitallers` possessions were governed.
• Last line of defense fortress – a citadel within a citadel, equipped with a network of underground passages leading to the harbor (in case of emergency evacuation).
• Symbol of power – the place where decisions affecting the fate of the entire eastern Mediterranean were made.
The knights turned Rhodes into an impregnable bastion of Christendom. Walls up to 12 meters thick and nearly 4 kilometers long grew around the Old Town. The entrance to the harbor was protected by a massive chain that was raised from the seabed in case of danger.
The Great Siege of 1480 and Restoration
In 1480, an Ottoman army of 70,000 men besieged Rhodes. They were opposed by only 600 knights and 2,000 soldiers. The siege, lasting two months, failed – the Hospitallers held out. However, the city was heavily damaged and then additionally suffered from a powerful earthquake in 1481. The restoration was led by the legendary Grand Master Pierre d’Aubusson – to whom Rhodes owes its restored grandeur. Associated with this name is a local legend: they say that the shadow of a giant serpent still roams the palace dungeons, guarding the "Gold of Rhodes" – the Order’s treasures that the Ottomans never found.
The Fall of the Order: 1522
Suleiman the Magnificent did not forget the humiliation of 1480. In the summer of 1522, he returned with an army of 100,000 men. This time, the knights had even fewer defenders – about 700. The siege lasted six months and became one of the most ferocious battles of the 16th century.
The Hospitallers fought with the desperation of the doomed. By some estimates, for every fallen defender, up to 73 Turks were killed. But the forces were too unequal. In December 1522, the knights capitulated on honorable terms: they were allowed to leave the island with their weapons and banners. The surviving Hospitallers went to Sicily, and then to Malta, where they established a new residence (it was then that the order became known as the Order of Malta).
Ottoman Period (1522–1912): Decline and Catastrophe
Dark times arrived for the Palace of the Grand Masters. The Turks used it as a prison and a military command center. Its former splendor fell into decay. Earthquakes gradually destroyed the building.
The real catastrophe occurred in 1856. In the nearby church of St. John (the former knights` church), the Turks had set up a gunpowder magazine. A lightning strike (according to other sources, an accidental fire) caused a monstrous explosion. The Palace of the Grand Masters was almost completely destroyed. For the following decades, it lay in ruins. What can be seen today is not the original medieval structure, but the result of a later reconstruction.
Italian Revival (1912–1940s)
In 1912, after the Italo-Turkish War, the island came under Italian control. It is to the Italians that we owe the magnificent building we see today. In the 1930s, under the direction of Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi, architect Vittorio Mesturino began a large-scale reconstruction of the Palace of the Grand Masters in Rhodes. The task was ambitious: to recreate a medieval knights` residence, but in a style that would glorify Fascist Italy.
The Italians approached the task on a grand scale:
• The monumental entrance gates with two semicircular towers were restored.
• The interior halls were adorned with mosaics from the late Hellenistic period (4th century BC), brought from the island of Kos. Today, visitors literally walk on ancient Greek gods and hunting scenes.
• The castle was filled with antique 16th–17th century furniture and frescoes by P. Gaudenzi and F. Villani.
Critics call this reconstruction "pseudo-medieval." Indeed, the Italians did not so much restore as create a new building on the ancient foundation. Only separate fragments of walls and the southern gate survive from the original knights` structure. But the other side cannot be denied: without the Italian reconstruction, only piles of stone would remain of the palace.
King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and Benito Mussolini himself vacationed in the restored Palace of the Grand Masters. Irony of fate: the fortress that for centuries had defended Christendom from Islamic invasion became the summer residence of a fascist dictator.
Present Day: Museum and UNESCO Heritage
In 1948, after the reunification of Rhodes with Greece, the Palace of the Grand Masters became a state museum. Today, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the main attraction of the island. About 24 of the palace`s 158 halls are open to visitors. On the first floor, there are exhibitions dedicated to ancient and medieval Rhodes. On the second floor are the restored state rooms with the same mosaics from Kos and a collection of medieval furniture.
Main Halls of the Palace of the Grand Masters in Rhodes:
• Hall of Reception (Hall of the Lost Steps): A vast chamber with massive chandeliers made of antlers, where one can imagine a banquet for 500 knights celebrating a victory over the Ottomans.
• Hall of Apocalypse: Named after the fresco "The Battle of Archangel Michael with the Dragon," distinguished by its solemn and heavy atmosphere.
• Grand Staircase: Made of marble taken from the ancient island of Kos.
• Collection of Armor and Furniture: all of this is an Italian stylization of Gothic. The originals have not survived, but the items look extremely convincing.
• Inner Courtyard: Be sure to step out into the courtyard, where silence reigns, orange trees grow, and an ancient well is located. From here, there is an ideal view of the towers and battlements. A small spiral staircase leads to a viewing platform from which the old port and the windmills are visible.
Mosaics from the Island of Kos
The floors of the state halls of the Palace of the Grand Masters are paved with mosaics that, in their artistic and historical significance, surpass many of the exhibits on the walls. The mosaics were brought from the neighboring island of Kos during the Italian reconstruction of the 1930s.
They date back to the late Hellenistic period – the 2nd–4th centuries BC. Their original location was the villas and public buildings of the ancient city of Kos, which were excavated by Italian archaeologists. By order of Governor Cesare De Vecchi, the best-preserved fragments were dismantled, transported to Rhodes, and mounted into the floors of the restored palace.
Main subjects:
• "The Lion Hunt" (Hall of Reception): The largest and most famous mosaic. Depicts two horsemen spearing a lion. Hunting scenes were popular in Hellenistic art as an allegory of valor and nobility.
• "Triton and Nereids" (Hall of Apocalypse): A marine theme, featuring the sea deity Triton and two Nereids riding sea horses (hippocamps). A central medallion with the head of Medusa the Gorgon.
• Geometric and floral ornaments (small halls): Meanders, plaits, lotuses, acanthus leaves – typical elements of Hellenistic decoration framing the figural scenes.
From an art history perspective, the mosaics of Kos belong to the "Pergamon school" – one of the leading centers of Hellenistic mosaic art. However, their placement in the Palace of the Grand Masters causes controversy in academic circles, since the Hellenistic mosaics have no direct relation to the Knights` period (14th–16th centuries) and were arbitrarily mounted into the building. Nevertheless, for visitors not delving into academic debates, this is simply an amazing opportunity to see beautiful mosaics that are already over two thousand years old.
The Palace of the Grand Masters in Rhodes is a multi-layered historical monument in which traces of the Hellenistic, Byzantine, Knights`, Ottoman, and Italian eras coexist in one space. Each period left material evidence in its architecture and exhibition, which can be seen today.
